Formal Connectors Japanese Grammar Lessons

The Japanese grammar pattern 上に, meaning “ue ni,” means "in addition to" or "on top of that." It is used to stack a second related point onto a first point, emphasizing a cumulative effect. Importantly, both parts of the sentence must share the same positive or negative tone, making it perfect for listing reasons why something is exceptionally good or bad.

The formal Japanese grammar pattern ～のみならず expresses that a situation applies not only to one thing, but extends to another as well. It is a stiff, formal counterpart to the everyday expression ～だけでなく and is primarily used in speeches, news broadcasts, and official writing. You will almost always see it followed by a second clause containing inclusive particles like も, meaning “also,” or まで, meaning “even,” to balance the statement.

The Japanese word および is a highly formal conjunction used to mean "and" or "as well as." It is strictly used to connect nouns or noun phrases, never verbs or full clauses. You will typically encounter it in official documents, public notices, legal texts, and formal speeches rather than everyday conversation.

The formal Japanese grammar pattern ～からなる is used to express that a whole entity is made up of specific parts, elements, or members. It appears frequently in academic texts, news, and official documents to objectively describe the composition of organizations, exams, or structures. Unlike expressions for physical materials, it is typically reserved for abstract or structural components rather than everyday physical ingredients.

The Japanese grammar pattern に基づいて means "based on" or "founded on." It is used to show that an action, decision, or system is built upon a specific foundation such as data, laws, facts, or standards. This is a formal expression frequently seen in news broadcasts, academic writing, and business environments.

The compound particle に加えて is used to express "in addition to" or "plus". It introduces a new item, factor, or situation that adds to an already existing one, often creating a larger cumulative effect. This pattern is commonly used in written or formal spoken Japanese to present objective additions.

The grammar pattern ～ともなく has two main uses in advanced Japanese. With verbs, it describes doing an action absentmindedly or without deliberate focus, often appearing with sensory or cognitive verbs. When paired with a question word, it indicates that an event, sound, or state originated from an unclear place, time, or person. It carries a formal or literary tone often found in writing and storytelling.

それに is a sentence connector that adds another point of the same kind after something you just said—often translated as "in addition," "besides that," or "and also." It usually opens a new sentence or clause and piles on another reason, feature, problem, or related fact without marking cause, result, or contrast. At N4, treat それに as a fixed additive unit: It continues the same direction of talk, unlike nearby connectors such as それで or それでも.

すると is a sentence-initial connector that introduces what happens next, a resulting discovery, or an "in that case" follow-up from what was just said. After an observed situation or a finished action, it often opens the next sentence with the event or fact that then comes into view—not a concession, and not always the speaker's chosen response. At N4, treat すると as a fixed discourse unit. Keep it apart from それで (reasoned so/therefore), そこで (taking action because of the situation), それでも (even so), and from もしかすると or ～からすると.

そこで is a sentence-initial connector that introduces the action the speaker takes because of a situation already described. After a problem, a limit, or a clear context, it opens the next sentence with a deliberate response—not a mere natural result, and not a next-event discovery. At N4, treat そこで as a fixed discourse unit. Keep it apart from それで (reasoned so/therefore), すると (what happens next), それでも (even so), and from locative そこで ("there").

だけど is a conversational contrast connector. It means a soft “but” or “though”: after a noun or a na-adjective (noun + だけど), or at the start of a new sentence (sentence A. だけど、sentence B). It is common in speech. だけど is softer and more casual than written しかし, and it is close to でも, けれど, and けれども. Keep it apart from でも (also a casual “but,” often sentence-initial), それでも (a stronger “even so / nevertheless”), and なぜなら (reason, not contrast).

～なくてもよろしいです means (you) need not, or it is not necessary that …. It grants a very polite exemption: skipping the action is all right. Formation starts from a verb in ない-form: change ない to なくて, then add もよろしいです (座らなくてもよろしいです). Japanese i-adjectives use くなくてもよろしいです; na-adjectives and nouns use でなくてもよろしいです (じゃなくても is a slightly less careful spoken pair). Keep it apart from ～てもよろしいです (very polite “(you) may”), ～なくてもいい / ～なくてもかまわない (similar “do not have to,” less formal), and ～なければなりません (must).

～にとって means “for / from the standpoint of” a person, group, role, or organization. It frames an evaluation, importance, difficulty, or meaning from that party's perspective, not a physical direction. Formation is typically a noun plus にとって: 私にとって, 学生にとって, 日本にとって. An evaluation often follows (大切, 難しい, 必要, 楽しい). にとっては adds a contrastive topic; にとっての makes a noun phrase. Keep it apart from ～にしては (“for / considering that,” often unexpected), ～として (in the role or capacity of), and ～に対して (toward a target of attitude or contrast).

～にしては means “for / considering that / given that.” It sets a known fact, status, price, age, or experience level, then gives a result that does not fully match what you would expect from that fact. Formation is typically a noun, an i-adjective, a na-adjective (+な), or a plain clause plus にしては: 初心者にしては, 安いにしては, 静かなにしては, 習い始めたばかりにしては. An evaluation such as 上手, おいしい, or 暖かい often follows. Keep it apart from ～にとって (standpoint / for someone, not unexpectedness), ～わりに (similar “considering” evaluation with a different feel), ～から見ると / ～から見れば (judging from a viewpoint), and ～として (in the role or capacity of).

～から見ると means “from the point of view of / judging from (that viewpoint).” It names a viewpoint on the left—a person, role, appearance, result, experience, or standard—then gives an evaluation or conclusion on the right. Formation is typically a noun (or a noun phrase) plus から見ると: 私から見ると, 外見から見ると, この結果から見ると. A judgment such as 危険です, 不十分です, or まだ早いです often follows. Keep it apart from ～にとって (how it matters for a party), ～にしては (unexpected result given a fact), ～から見れば (close “if one looks from…” cousin), and ～からいうと / ～からいえば (speaking from a standpoint or aspect).

～から見れば means “if one looks from / judging from (that viewpoint).” It names a viewpoint on the left—a person, role, appearance, result, experience, or standard—then gives an evaluation or conclusion on the right, often with a slightly conditional or contrastive feel. Formation is typically a noun (or a noun phrase) plus から見れば: 私から見れば, 外見から見れば, この結果から見れば. A judgment such as 危険です, 不十分です, or まだ早いです often follows. Keep it apart from ～から見ると (close “looking from…” cousin with a more straightforward frame), ～にとって, meaning “how it matters for a party,”, ～にしては, meaning “unexpected result given a fact,”, and ～からいうと / ～からいえば, meaning “speaking from a standpoint or aspect,”.

～からいうと means “speaking from / in terms of (that aspect).” It names an aspect, criterion, field, experience, role, or standpoint on the left, then gives an evaluation or conclusion on the right. Formation is typically a noun (or a noun phrase) plus からいうと: 私からいうと, 経験からいうと, 健康からいうと, この点からいうと. A judgment such as 危険です, 必要です, or 便利です often follows. Keep it apart from ～からいえば (close “if one speaks from…” cousin), ～から見ると / ～から見れば (looking/judging from a viewpoint), ～にとって (meaning “how it matters for a party”), and ～にしては (meaning “unexpected result given a fact”).

～からいえば means “if one speaks from / if speaking in terms of (that aspect).” It names an aspect, criterion, field, experience, role, or standpoint on the left, then gives an evaluation or conclusion on the right. Formation is typically a noun (or a noun phrase) plus からいえば: 私からいえば, 経験からいえば, 健康からいえば, この点からいえば. A judgment such as 危険です, 必要です, or 便利です often follows. Keep it apart from ～からいうと (close straightforward “speaking from…” cousin), ～から見ると / ～から見れば (looking/judging from a viewpoint), ～にとって (meaning “how it matters for a party”), and ～にしては (meaning “unexpected result given a fact”).

～にかけて marks a rough span of time or space covering from A through B, or toward an endpoint period or area. Typical readings are “from A through B,” “over the period from A to B,” or “toward B.” Formation is often noun (A) + から + noun (B) + にかけて, as in 朝から夜にかけて or 関東から東北にかけて. A noun naming an endpoint alone can also take にかけて: 週末にかけて, 夕方にかけて. Keep it apart from ～から～まで, meaning “clear start and end points,”, ～にわたって, meaning “formal emphasis on the whole extent,”, and ～にかけては (excellence “when it comes to” a field—not this lesson’s span sense).

～に代わって marks acting on behalf of someone, or in their place, for a role, duty, speech, or representation. Formation is a person, role, or organization noun + に代わって, then the action you take for them: 社長に代わって、あいさつをします. Keep it for people and roles. For everyday object swaps or trade-offs, use 代わりに instead.

～にかわり marks acting on behalf of someone, or in their place, in a more formal written register. Formation is a person, role, or organization noun + にかわり, then the action you take for them: 校長にかわり、式辞を述べます. Treat it as the written style twin of に代わって. For object swaps or trade-offs, use 代わりに; for time or space spans, use にかけて.

～に関わる marks involvement, connection, or a matter that has a bearing—often stronger than mild “regarding.” Formation is a noun for a matter, person, or field + に関わる, used as a predicate or before another noun: 命に関わる, 環境に関わる研究. Prefer it when stakes, responsibility, or real connection matter; for soft topic-marking “about,” use について or formal に関して / に関する.

～に応じた is the noun-modifying form that labels something as suited to a prior condition, capacity, or request. Formation is a noun + に応じた + another noun: 予算に応じたプラン, 能力に応じた仕事, 年齢に応じた教材. Use it before a noun; for clause-level adapting before a verb, use adverbial に応じて instead.

～に沿った is the noun-modifying form that labels something as in line with a path, guideline, rule, theme, or expectation. Formation is a noun + に沿った + another noun: 方針に沿った改革, ガイドラインに沿った運用, 川に沿った遊歩道. Use it before a noun; for clause-level following before a verb, use adverbial に沿って instead.

～に基づく is the dictionary form that grounds a following noun—or a predicate—in a foundation such as data, law, facts, evidence, or research. Formation is often a noun + に基づく + another noun: 調査結果に基づく報告, 憲法に基づく権利, 統計に基づく予測. Use it to label something as founded on evidence; for "based on X, do Y" before a verb, prefer adverbial に基づいて.

～をきっかけに marks a specific chance, event, or opportunity as the starting trigger for a later change, habit, relationship, or new effort. Learners usually meet it at N3 in written Japanese, news-style narration, presentations, and careful polite storytelling about how something began. The part before をきっかけに names the trigger; the clause after it states what started or changed as a result.

～を中心にして marks a noun as the center that an action, organization, discussion, or arrangement revolves around. You attach it after a noun with を, then continue with the clause that describes what is organized, discussed, or arranged around that center. At N3 it is common in writing, news, reports, and careful spoken explanations, and it has close surface variants such as を中心に, を中心として, and を中心とした.

～をはじめ attaches after a noun and presents that noun as the first, main, or typical member of a wider group. After the connector, the sentence usually continues with other examples, a category label, or a predicate about the whole set—not only about the named item. You meet this formal connector often in news, reports, speeches, and careful explanations at the N3 level.

～をはじめとする is an attributive pattern that frames a following noun group as headed by a foremost or typical member. Formation is noun (A) + をはじめとする + noun (B): ピアノをはじめとする楽器, 医師をはじめとする医療従事者, 米をはじめとする穀物. Use it to label a set with A as the lead case; for a continuing list or predicate about the wider group, prefer adverbial ～をはじめ or ～をはじめとして.

では is a sentence-initial discourse marker that often means 'well then' or 'in that case' and moves talk or text to the next formal step. Learners meet it early in classroom Japanese, meetings, presentations, and polite service talk after some shared context is already clear. This lesson focuses on that transition use only; particle では, negative ではない, and casual じゃあ belong to different patterns.